EPILEPSY: CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS, DIAGNOSTIC APPROACHES, AND MODERN TREATMENT MEASURES

Аннотация

This article analyzes the main clinical presentations of epilepsy, the methods used for its diagnosis, and modern treatment strategies. Epilepsy is a chronic disease of the central nervous system characterized by recurrent seizures. Through early detection and modern therapeutic approaches, patients’ quality oflifecan besignificantly improved. Keywords: Epilepsy, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, modern treatment, antiepileptic drugs, neurostimulation Introduction to Epilepsy. Epilepsy is a neurological disorder caused by excessive and sudden electrical activity of brain neurons. Worldwide, the disease affects about 1–2 out of every 100 individuals. Epilepsy not only produces physical symptoms but also psychological and social problems. Therefore, understanding, diagnosing, and treating this illness correctly is an importanttask in modern medicine. Generalized seizures. Generalized seizures are those in which epileptic activity spreads simultaneously across both cerebral hemispheres. The patient usually loses consciousness completely and does not respond to external stimuli. These seizures are further classified into several clinical types: 1.Tonic-ClonicSeizure(Classic GrandMal) Thisis themost common and typically themostsevere form.  Tonic phase (10–30 seconds): The patient loses consciousness; all muscles stiffen suddenly and intensely, often causing a fall. Occasionally the patient may bite their tongue or makesounds.  Clonic phase (30–60 seconds): Muscles begin to contract rhythmically—these jerking movements gradually decrease in frequency andintensity. Postictal phase: After the seizure, the patient slowly regains consciousness. They may be lethargic, fatigued, or confused. This state can last from several minutes to several hours. Signs can include frothing at the mouth, urinary or fecal incontinence, labored breathing, cyanosis (due tohypoxia), and temporary disturbances ofhearing orvision. If you would like me to continue translating the remaining sections following exactly the same structure—such as absences, myoclonic and atonic seizures, focal seizures, diagnosis methods http://www.internationaljournal.co.in/index.php/jasass 298 Volume 15Issue 07, July 2025 Impact factor: 2019: 4.679 2020: 5.015 2021: 5.436, 2022: 5.242, 2023: 6.995, 2024 7.75 (EEG, MRI, CT), and modern treatment modalities—please let meknow. 2.AbsenceSeizures (PetitMal) Theseare most common inchildren. There is abrief (5–15seconds) loss of consciousness during which the child stares blankly; if speaking, the child stops mid-sentence. There is no pain or falling involved, and the child often doesn’t remember the episode. These seizures can occur multipletimesa day. 3.MyoclonicSeizures These involve brief, sudden muscle jerks—especially in the arms and shoulders. They typically occurinthemorning orunderstress. 4.AtonicSeizures Muscletonesuddenly drops, causing the patient tocollapse. The head, legs, or arms may go limp. Although these seizures are very brief, they carry ahigh risk ofinjury. 5.IsolatedTonicorClonicSeizures  Tonic:Only muscle stiffening occurs (often at night).  Clonic:Only rhythmic jerking movements are observed. Generalized seizures generally pose greater risks due to the potential for falls and injuries. They can temporarily affect lung and heart function. If prolonged, they may lead to status epilepticus—alife-threatening condition ofcontinuous seizureactivity. Focal Seizures Focal seizures involve epileptic activity in only a specific part of the cerebral cortex, and do not immediately spread to the whole brain. Clinical signs vary depending on the region of the brain where theseizurebegins. Focal seizures are divided intotwo main types: http://www.internationaljournal.co.in/index.php/jasass 299 Volume 15Issue 07, July 2025 Impact factor: 2019: 4.679 2020: 5.015 2021: 5.436, 2022: 5.242, 2023: 6.995, 2024 7.75 1.Simple(Focal) Seizures –Awareness Preserved Thepatient remains conscious. Symptoms depend onthebrain region involved:  Motorarea: Jerking ortwitching in thearm, leg, orface  Sensoryarea: Tingling, numbness, orelectric-shock sensations  Visualfield:Flashes oflight orcolors in vision  Auditory area: Hearing unusualnoises or sounds  Olfactory: Smellingstrangeor oddodors  Psychicchanges:Fear, a suddensense offamiliarity (déjà-vu) Theseseizures typically last 30seconds to2minutes and may go unnoticed byothers. 2.Complex Focal Seizures –Impaired Awareness Consciousnessis lost orclouded. The patient mayperform automatic movements such as:  Chewing  Lip-smacking  Fiddlingwith clothing  Staringinto space Communication breaks down, though the patient’s eyes may remain open. Seizures usually last 1–2minutes,followed byaperiod of confusion and fatigue. Secondary Generalization ofFocal Seizures At times, a focal seizure can start in a limited area but then spread to both hemispheres— evolvinginto ageneralized tonic-clonic seizure. This process is called secondary generalization. Focal seizures can