The Religious and Cultural Environment of Khorasan And Transoxiana In Muslim Geographical Literature of the 3rd/4th (9th/10th) Centuries

Аннотация

This article explores the religious, cultural, and intellectual landscape of the Khorasan and Transoxiana regions during the 3rd and 4th centuries AH (9th and 10th centuries CE) through the lens of classical Muslim geographical literature. Focusing on the works of prominent geographers such as Istakhri, Ibn Hawqal, and al- Maqdisi, the study investigates how these texts portray the natural, political, and spiritual boundaries of the region. Particular attention is given to the description of scientific institutions, religious pluralism, and sectarian diversity, shedding light on the vibrant scholarly and cultural atmosphere of the period. The article further evaluates the historiographical and analytical value of these sources for modern historical and geographical scholarship. Keywords: Khorasan, Transoxiana, Muslim geographical literature, Istakhri, Ibn Hawqal, al-Maqdisi, religious diversity, scientific centers, cultural history, sectarian landscape. geographers. For instance, Istakhri’s work Kitāb al- Introduction: In the 4th/10th century, the regions of Masālik wa-l-Mamālik offers detailed information on Khorasan and Transoxiana were among the leading the road systems, cities, and natural geography of centers of the Central Islamic world, excelling in Khorasan and adjacent areas. He particularly political, social, and cultural spheres, with notable emphasizes the economic and administrative centers developments in various fields, including science, of the region. jurisprudence (fiqh), theology (kalam), and logic. Prominent Muslim geographers of this period — Ibn Hawqal, in his eponymous work, updates Istakhri’s including Istakhri, Ibn Hawqal, and al-Maqdisi — left maps and provides supplementary information on the invaluable information concerning the natural political-territorial divisions, the ethnic composition of boundaries, political-territorial divisions, and scholarly the population, and religious conditions. His life of these regions. Notably, al-Maqdisi provides in- descriptions are distinguished by historical and depth analyses of the scientific centers, sectarian geographical accuracy. Of special note are his diversity, and socio-cultural environment of Khorasan observations regarding local governance structures and and Transoxiana in his works. The scientific and their impact on the development of Islamic sciences. analytical aspects of the geographical depictions of Al-Maqdisi’s Aḥsan al-taqāsīm fī maʿrifat al-aqālīm these regions, as well as the religious movements offers a profound analysis of Khorasan and Transoxiana present and their influence, are studied based on the not only from a geographical standpoint but also writings of these geographers. through the lenses of cultural and religious distinctions. LITERATURE REVIEW He describes the region’s scientific centers, the sectarian diversity prevailing there, social strata, and Valuable insights into the political, social, and cultural the intellectual climate within Muslim society. His life of Khorasan and Transoxiana in the 4th/10th accounts particularly highlight the scholarly and century are extensively covered in the works of Muslim International Journal Of History And Political Sciences 12 https://theusajournals.com/index.php/ijhps International Journal Of History And Political Sciences (ISSN – 2771-2222) religious life of cities such as Bukhara, Samarkand, and Transoxiana were under the rule of the Samanids, while Nishapur. Sijistan was governed by the Saffarids, who were vassals to the Samanids. By the late century, the Contemporary scholars such as C. E. Bosworth, André incursions and ascendancy of the Ghaznavids and the Miquelle, and Paul Lunde have analyzed these primary Karakhanids led to the complete dissolution of the sources, demonstrating their significant historical- Samanid state in 395/1005 [2. 267-341 b]. During the geographical value. Moreover, studies on the spread of Samanid era, Khurasan experienced significant Sunni and Shia schools in Transoxiana and their scientific and cultural progress, and some of its cities influence on regional intellectual developments have became important centers of Islamic scholarship. The relied heavily on the re-examination of these texts, leading scientific hubs in Khurasan included Marv, providing a methodological foundation for further Balkh, and Nishapur, while Bukhara and Samarkand research. held similar prominence in Transoxiana. Thus, the existing literature creates not only a historical Geographers praised the scientific and cultural state of but also a scientific and philosophical framework for the region. Istakhri highlighted the presence of many investigating the multifaceted life of these regions in renowned scholars and jurists in Marv. Ibn Hawqal the medieval period. noted that Khurasan produced prominent figures in