MINING AND METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY IN ANTIQUITY AND THE MIDDLE AGES IN WRITTEN SOURCES

Аннотация

This article examines written sources related to the mining and metallurgical industries in the territory of Uzbekistan during ancient and medieval times. In particular, it explores information from the first written source on the history of Central Asia — the Avesta — as well as data from the works of medieval historians such as al-Tabari and Abu Rayhan al-Biruni. The article discusses the earliest metal coins, precious stones, and trade routes that facilitated the exchange of goods and culture. Keywords: Rakhta-Ishtar, Mithra, Panjakent, Konimekh, Yaghnob, Matcha, metal, copper, iron, lead, tin, resin, asbestos, gold, silver, turquoise, brass. One of the earliest written sources that provides information about the role of metals in the lives of the peoples of Central Asia is the Avesta. It contains information about the Eastern states and Central Asia, which was historically and culturally part of them. In its hymns, praise is given to the god and the best representative of these lands, Raxta-Eshtar. Raxta-Eshtar’s power and strength are symbolized by his metal-made shovel, the metal tools and equipment of his horse, and his battle gear. The text says: “Ever-victorious, mighty, immune to lies, riding in a golden chariot... the sun god Mitra possesses thousands of arrows, thousands of double-edged knives, thousands of maces made of the finest metal, and a hundred-edged, hundred-strike yellow metal axe coated in gold.”1. Based on archaeological excavations and written sources, it is evident that in the first millennium BCE, metals such as copper, iron, lead, and tin were mined in the mountainous regions of the Zarafshan Valley—particularly around Panjakent, Konimex, Yaghnob, and Matcha. These mining activities played a significant role in strengthening the economic power of the Sogdian state. Written sources, especially ancient Sogdian inscriptions and the works of Arab geographers, provide clear references to this activity. 1 Авеста. Избранные гимны. Пер. с авеста и камментарий И.М. Стеблин-Каменского. Душанбе.,1990, С.-86- 87. page 236 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ISSN: 2692-5206, Impact Factor: 12,23 American Academic publishers, volume 05, issue 05, 2025 Journal: https://www.academicpublishers.org/journals/index.php/ijai The Kushan Empire and the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, preserving rich cultural and material traditions, began to mint various metal coins by smelting ores. Over time, the images on these coins, originally depicting Greek gods such as Zeus, were replaced with symbols closer to the cultures of the Central Asian peoples, such as images of their beloved horses. Many such metal coins have been discovered, and continue to be found, in the Surkhandarya region of Uzbekistan. Archaeologists such as G. Pugachenkova and others consider the Dalverzin Tepe in Surkhandarya to be the site of the Kushan Empire’s capital. Kadphises, believed to be either the son or grandson of Heraios, was the first ruler of the Kushans. Before Kadphises Kujula, coins typically bore the image of Heraios. It is also worth mentioning that during the rule of the Achaemenid dynasty and the era of Darius, who held control over Central Asia for nearly 200 years, vast amounts of gold, silver, and precious stones constantly flowed into the hands of Iranian and Persian jewelers. This leads to the conclusion that during these periods, gold and silver—both alluvial and extracted from mines—were actively mined from the soil of Central Asia. Alongside them, precious stones such as rubies, emeralds, turquoise, mother-of-pearl, and pearls were also extracted, while gold, silver, and copper were smelted2. In the works of Eastern historians, interesting information is presented about metals in the context of events that took place in the cities of Transoxiana. The Arab historian Al-Tabari, while describing in detail the Arab campaigns in Central Asia, reports the following: “After the Arabs under the leadership of Qutayba captured the city of Paykand near Bukhara in 706, they obtained a vast amount of gold and silver vessels, which were melted down into metal. Never before had such a large amount of spoils been acquired in Khurasan.” He also writes: “After the conquest of Samarkand in 712, Qutayba ordered the collection of all the treasures from the city’s temples. According to this order, statues were looted, temples were burned, and even the used nails were melted down, resulting in the collection of 50,000 mithqals of gold3”. According to Al-Tabari, the Arabs who defeated the troops of Chach and Fergana that came to aid besieged Samarkand filled the Paykand treasury with captured weapons, tools, and golden belts. Detailed information about the underground wealth of Transoxiana, that is, modern-day Uzbekistan, is provided in Arabic sources from the 9th to 12th centuries, especially in the works of 10th-century geographers. When describing the countries of Transoxiana, they specifically mention the reserves of undergrou