THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC ROOTS OF THE SARBADARS MOVEMENT: FORMATION OF POPULAR RESISTANCE IN 14TH-CENTURY TRANSOXIANA

Аннотация

The Sarbadars movement, which emerged in the mid-14th century in the region of Khurasan and Transoxiana, represents one of the earliest examples of grassroots socio-political resistance in Central Asian history. This article explores the socio-economic causes that contributed to the rise of the Sarbadars by analyzing historical sources, economic structures, and the lived experiences of ordinary people under Mongol and post-Mongol rule. The study employs a historical-analytical methodology to investigate how economic hardship, class inequality, and administrative corruption catalyzed mass mobilization. The findings reveal that the Sarbadars were not only a religious or political reactionary force but also a reflection of deep-rooted structural tensions within society. The study also draws parallels between the Sarbadars and other contemporary uprisings, highlighting the universal nature of grassroots resistance movements in the post-Mongol Islamic world. By identifying shared economic triggers across regions, thepaper contributes to comparative historical sociology. Keywords:Sarbadars, socio-economic history, Transoxiana, Mongol rule, grassroots resistance, 14thcentury 1.INTRODUCTION The Sarbadars, a political and militant movement active primarily in Sabzavar and later in parts of Transoxiana, arose during a time of economic turmoil and political fragmentation in the14th century. Their name, meaning “those who are ready tohang” (Sar-ba-dar), signifies the radical and desperate nature of their struggle. Existing studies have often focused on the religious and political ideology of the movement, particularly its Shi'a influences. However, less attention has been paid to the socio-economic structures that facilitated such popular resistance. This paper argues that the movement’s emergence cannot be fully understood without analyzing the underlying economic and social tensions that shaped life under Mongol and post-Chagatai rule in the region. The Sarbadars' political emergence coincided with a period offragmentation in theIlkhanate and the weakening of centralized authority in Khurasan. This power vacuum enabled regional actors to assert autonomy, often through violent or revolutionary means. In this context, the Sarbadars filled a void left by ineffective governance, offeringa blend ofreligious legitimacy and economicpopulism. Furthermore, the movement’s leadership structure, which often rotated or was contested internally, reflected the unstable socio-political base from which it emerged. Understanding the Sarbadars thus requires an appreciation not just of their ideology, but of the broader structural crisis ofpost-Mongol Iran and Transoxiana. 2.LITERATURE REVIEW ANDMETHODOLOGY Historians such as V.V. Barthold and Jean Aubin have addressed the Sarbadars in broader surveys of Central Asian history, but few have investigated their economic motivations page2512 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ISSN:2692-5206,ImpactFactor:12,23 AmericanAcademicpublishers,volume05,issue05,2025 Journal: https://www.academicpublishers.org/journals/index.php/ijai in depth. Contemporary Islamic chronicles like Zafarnama by Sharaf ad-Din Ali Yazdi and Tarikh-i Wassaf provide valuable, though elite-centric, insights into the period. This study re- evaluates these sources with a focus on non-elite perspectives, combining qualitative content analysis with socio-historical contextualization. While many classical sources (e.g., Zafarnama) were composed by elite historians, recent scholarship has emphasized the importance of "history from below" — that is, focusing on the lived experiences of non-elites. This study adopts this framework by reading primary sources critically, seeking implicit evidence of socio- economicgrievances behind recorded events. The study also references economic history works, including land tenure systems (iqta vs. milk) and taxation regimes under the Mongol administration. A comparative perspective with Anatolia and Mamluk Egypt during the same period enriches the understanding of systemicfiscal crises. Methodology: Historical-comparative method, Qualitative analysis of primary sources (e.g., Zafarnama), Secondary analysis of economic structures (taxation, land tenure), Focus on cause- effect relationships in historical developments 3.RESULTS Theanalysis yielded several significant findings: 1) Economic Dislocation: The Mongol invasions and subsequent fragmentation of centralized authority disrupted agriculture and trade, leading to widespread poverty among peasants and artisans. 2) Inequitable Taxation: Heavy and arbitrary tax burdens were placed upon the lower classes while the elite classes enjoyed tax exemptions, intensifying resentment. 3) Land Ownership Crisis: The iqta system evolved into a semi-feudal structure where local rulers monopolized land, dispossessing smallholders and marginalizing rural populations. 4) Decline of Urban Autonomy: Urban centers like Sabzavar and Nishapur lost thei